the rise of spanish and german rulers

In the year 375 Gratian was Western Roman Emperor, his younger brother Valens was Eastern Roman Emperor and a mere boy, Valentinian II, ruled over Italy, Africa and Illyricum. It was a difficult time for the Germanic Goths of the Danube -- the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths -- but particularly the Ostrogoths whose kingdom had been destroyed by the Huns, a powerful tribe from central Asia, who were pushing into eastern Europe and southern Russia.

Terrified by the Huns, the Visigoths petitioned Valens to be allowed to cross the Danube and settle in Roman territory. In return for troops, Valens agreed and a massive migration of the Visigoth nation took place by ferry across the Danube. They settled in Thrace -- modern Greece -- and immediately a revolt broke out between the Roman citizens of Thrace and the unwanted Goth immigrants (whose descendants are still visible in northern Greece today by their fair skin, blonde hair and blue eyes).

In 378 Valens asked for assistance from Gratian, who sent troops, but Valens became impatient and attacked the German Goths and was defeated and killed.

Gration appointed a a Spanish aristocratic military commander, Theodosius, to rule over Thrace, headquartered in Thessalonica; and in 379 appointed him emperor of Egypt, the East and the Balkans where the Goth troubles persisted.

Theodosius - an aggressive catholic - issued a decree in 380 advising everyone to become catholic (ie to accept the Nicene Creed) calling those who did not 'demented and crazed' warranting not only God's punishment but his, as well, and deposed the Arian bishop of Constantinople.

In 381 blood sacrifice was banned -- but other forms of Pagan worship were allowed -- and Theodosius ordered that all churches should be turned over to catholic bishops.

Like Gratian, Theodosius banned all non-catholic assemblies issuing 18 edicts against various dissenting christian sects. However, no action was taken against 'spontaneous' local acts destroying Pagan temples and in this way Paganism was virtually wiped out in territories ruled by Theodosius.

By 382, Theodosius entered into a treaty with the Goths, allowing them to settle in the Balkans as a self-governing federate, in return for providing troops for the Roman army (under Goth command).

Theodosius was easier than Gratian on the Pagans. At first, Gratian was tolerant of religious differences, but under the influence of the aristocratic Bishop of Milan, Ambrose -- Milan having long been the imperial seat of Rome -- he outlawed heretical assemblies, and abolished the privileges of the pagan priesthoods in Rome.

In 383, Magnus Maximus, a Spanish aristocratic military commander like Theodosius, proclaimed himself emperor in Britain and invaded Gaul. Gratian went to meet the usurper, but was abandoned by his troops, turned over to Maximus and executed by him.

Maximus sent envoys to Valentian II and Theodosius for recognition, but they stalled -- Theodosius to work out a treaty in 387 with Persia (splitting up Armenia) before he could deal with Maximus in the west.

Maximus was a fervent Catholic, having Orthodox Christians executed in Spain -- an action deplored by some Spanish Bishops -- but such violence was the logical result of the state becoming the defender of Catholic dogma (following Emperor Constantine's conversion to Christianity in 312).

In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, forcing Valentian II to flee to Thessalonica, and finally Theodosius came to Italy, did battle with Maximus, defeated him and had him executed.

The Roman Empire was now effectively in the hands of two Spaniards -- Theodosius and Maximus.

While in Italy, Theodosius presented his 5 year old son Honorius to the Roman Senators as a future ruler of the west (having already secured the succession of his older son, Arcadius, as ruler of the east) and fell under the influence of Ambrose, as Gratian before him had.

In 388 a bishop in the Euphrates area, against Roman law, ordered the destruction of a synagogue. Theodosius ordered the bishop to pay for its rebuilding, Ambrose was outraged, and Theodosius deferred.

In 390, Theodosius was subordinated even further by Bishop Ambrose when he was excommunicated following a military command giving the Goth troops in Thessalonica the right to take revenge on the local population for murdering their officers.

Theodosius atoned for his 'sin' for months as a miserable penitent before Bishop Ambrose allowed him the sacraments again, but the sight of an emperor debasing himself in such a manner gave a bad impression to both Christians and Pagans.

Before returning to Constantinople in 391 -- leaving Valentinian II under the care of the German general Arbogast -- Theodosius finally put a ban on pagan worship and sacrifice. By 392 Valentinian II was found hanged and Arbogast appointed Eugenius, an easily manipulated middle-ranking civilian, to replace him.

Fearing reprisal from Theodosius, Eugenius and Arbogast gained support from the Roman Pagans who were furious at Theodosius's anti-Pagan laws.

Bishop Ambrose excommunicated Eugenius -- and Theodosius now had the pretext for a holy war which he waged in 394 and won with a large contingent of Goth soldiers. He then cracked down harder on the Pagans, but died in 395, succeeded by his two young and inexperienced sons -- Arcadius, aged 13, in the east and Honorius, aged 18, in the wast -- permanently dividing the Roman empire between east and west.

Stilicho, who was married to the niece of Theodosius, maintained he was the guardian of both boys, but in effect had no control over Arcadias who was out of reach in the east. He strengthened his control over Honorius by marrying the boy to his daughter.

A major problem facing Stilicho was a revolt in 395 among the Goth soldiers with whom Theodosius had won the battle against Eugenius in 394 and remained stationed in Italy. They had suffered enormous losses to defend the Roman Empire at the expense of the federate Visigoth nation under King Alaric. Those Goth troops that had returned to the Balkans also started a revolt in Greece in 396, and finally as a peace offering King Alaric was given a position as a Roman general in 397.

In 397, King Alaric, now a Roman General, used his position to equip his Goths with weaponry and seek territory in the west. In 401 he invaded Northern Italy at a time when Stilicho was busy repelling the Vandals. Alaric put Honorius under siege in Milan, and Stilicho was able to negotiate with the Vandals to provide him with troops in order to fight Alaric.

In 402 Stilicho with the Vandals forced Alaric to lift the siege, forced the Goths back and captured Alaric's family. The Goths regrouped and came back in 403 and Stilicho negotiated with them to stay where they were.

In 405, hordes of Ostrogoths from the mid Danube region fell upon Italy and Stilicho was able to push them back by summoning Roman troops from the Rhineland and hiring Hun troops from across the Danube, but they were pushed into Gaul and he decided to abandon Gaul to the Ostrogoths in favor of taking advantage of what was happening in the eastern empire in order to gain control of the entire empire.

The Huns had invaded the eastern empire in 398 from the Caucasus; Arcadius gave the eunuch Eutropius a consulship in 399 following his successful campaign against the Huns; andin 404 John Chrysotom, the Bishop of Constantinople, had been deposed and exiled following his tactless treatment of Arcadius's wife.

When Stilicho's demands for the bishop's reinstatement were ignored, he cut off trade with the east and was preparing to fight Arcadius when events overtook him.

King Alaric of the Goths decided to invade Italy again in 408, demanding gold in compensation for the losses his nation suffered and Stilicho induced the Senate to agree.

In the meantime, Arcadius died and was succeeded by his 7 year old son Theodius II and fired with such an easy opportunity to gain control of the east, Stilicho gave King Alaric authority to restore order in Gaul and left for Constantinople - only to return when news reached him that his supporters had been murdered.

Honorius had Stilicho executed and when Alaric resumed his invasion of Italy, demanding more gold, land and an Imperial office Honorius refused, resulting in King Alaric of the Goths capturing Rome in 409, proclaiming the prefect of the city, Attalus, as emperor and himself the prefect.

Honorius held out with reinforcement from his nephew in the east, but Alaric sacked the city of Rome in rage.

Alaric died that year, his brother Athaulf became king and led the Visigoths to Gaul where a Roman general stationed in Britain - Constantine - having been declared Emperor by his men - crossed the channel, gained the support of the Roman troops he found there and engaged in attacks against the barbarians, taking over Spain.

In leaving Britain, Honorius ceded British civilians the right to defend themselves. Roman rule of Britain had finally come to an end. It had started with the invasion in the year 43 by Claudius,and had lasted for 366 years.

The Roman Empire continued in the east, but in the west it had totally disintegrated and from 409 onwards it became a loose arrangement of growing nation states under the control of the catholic church.

This article first appeared as goth migrations and invasions

constantine, savior or opportunist?

Constantine was responsible for starting the process whereby the Church assumed the functions of the state -- a system which persisted until the Reformation, and beyond in some parts of Europe -- and his rise to fame began in 293 AD when threats from all parts of the Roman Empire were so dire that the Emperor, Diocletian (with Maximian as co-emperor) appointed his father Constantius (married to Maximian's daughter) to help rule the west and Galerius (married to Diocletian's daughter) to help rule the east.

Both Constantius (Constantine's father) and Galerius were of German, not Roman ethnicity, and when Diocletian abdicated in 303 - persuading Maximian to do likewise - he gave full power to Constantius in the west and Galerius in the east. The Roman empire was now ruled by Germans!

Galerius appointed his nephew Maximinus as co-ruler, and urged Constantius to appoint Severus, a general, as his co-ruler in the west, but within a year, in 306, Constantius died, precipitating his son, Constantine, to pronounce himself Emperor of the West but, acting as senior emperor, Galerius coerced him to be Severus' co-ruler and so Severus became Emperor of the West.

Constantine acquiesced for the moment and distinguished himself by establishing his authority over Britain, Gaul and Spain and in his new capacity as co-ruler rescinded his father's edicts against the Christians and became their savior. Constantine was smart enough to know that most foot soldiers were poverty-stricken Christians, and by gaining their trust they would support him in his rise to power.

Meanwhile Maximian's son, Maxentius, followed Constantine's lead and took advantage of dissent in Rome to have himself declared as Emperor in 306. Galerius refused him recognition and ordered Severus to remove him by force, but faced with Maximian suddenly re-claiming the emperorship from his son, Maxentius, Severus was forced to abdicate and was eventually killed.

Galerius finally invaded Italy in 307, wanting the reinstatement of Severus, but was defeated and had to withdraw. Then, Maxentius argued with his father about who was the rightful emperor.

In the meantime, Constantine remained neutral as the co-ruler of the west - despite the fact that he had married Maxentius' sister and was therefore involved in the family struggle whether he liked it or not. When the army sided with Maxentius, Maximian fled to Constantine's court in the west.

Maximian -- the Western emperor -- was forced to abdicate, and his son, Maxentius, was denied any status. A new emperor for the west was appointed - Licinius, a general - and Constantine remained as his co-ruler.

Maximian still yearned for power and was forced to commit suicide after an attempt to overthrow his son-in-law Constantine in 310. In that year, too, the Carnuntum Conference was convened by the Eastern Roman Emperor Galerius to restore order among those contending to be the western emperor. This conference was attended by Diocletian.

To complicate matters, Galerius' co-ruler, Maximinus, resented the elevation of Licinius and to keep peace, Galerius made him his co-emperor.

In 311 Galerius died and Maximinus, implacably against the strange Jewish cult of Christianity, took over.

To secure his position, Constantine offered the marriage of his sister, Constantia, to Licinius, Emperor of the West.

Maximinus, Emperor of the East, promised Maxentius, living in Rome, the emperorship of the west, causing Constantine to invade Italy in 312. At the Battle of the Mulvian Bridge outside Rome Maxentius met Constantine (who used a Christian symbol on his shield) and Maxentius was defeated.

In the following year 313, while Licinius was in Rome marrying Constantine's sister, Maximinus marched across Asia Minor, taking Byzantium and crossed into Europe. The armies of the east and west met, Maximinus fled, abandoning his army, and Licinius pursued him to Tarsus in Asia Minor, besieged him and finally he committed suicide.

Licinius kept his promise to Constantine about restoring church property taken by Maximinus, and was ruthless in eradicating all members - including women and children - of the families involved in persecuting Christians (far more ruthless than the previous emperors had been against members of the new Jewish sect called Christianity).

Amazingly, after Licinius had got rid of all of Constantine's rivals, and done much of his dirty work for him, Constantine then feared Licinius in his position as new Emperor of the East - with a male heir, Constantine's own nephew - and declared war on him in 316, got as far as Byzantium but was outsmarted by Licinius and retreated.

Previously sympathetic to Christians, Licinius now saw them as treacherous and protected himself by dismissing them from his service.

By 321 the empire was split, and wanting total control Constantine amassed a huge force and invaded Licinius's territory northwest of Thessalonica, northern Greece, and in 324 the two armies did battle. Licinius fell back and was finally defeated near Chalcedon. Licinius's life was spared when his wife (Constantine's sister) and the Bishop of Nicomedia interceded.

With Licinius's abdication, Constantine became the first emperor in 40 years to rule the empire on his own and immediately became embroiled in complicated Christian theological disputes, necessitating calling a Church Council in 325, held in Nicaea, attended by 300 bishops mainly from the east. Though largely a Greek affair, its decisions were to be binding in the west as well and became known as the Nicene Creed.

As well as setting a fixed date for Easter, this council also eradicated Jewish customs from the service.

Constantine was open about his preference for Christianity - and his disgust at the old religions - but very wisely did little to force his views upon all citizens in the Roman Empire. Instead, by bestowing money, honor and prestigious positions on those who converted he cleverly induced large numbers of high-class Romans to convert to Christianity.

Constantine started the process whereby the Church assumed the functions of the state, and he also continued, with much vigor, the process whereby Germans were enrolled in the Roman army and given the highest positions of command -- an act that ultimately would lead to the end of the Roman Empire.

In Rome, he built many churches and turned over vast amounts of Imperial property to the Church, but it was the building of the new capital city - Constantinople - on the site of the old Greek city of Byzantium that distinguished his reign.

He looted pagan shrines to adorn his new city; offered tax incentives and other rewards to attract settlers; and started a new Senate for the city. It was dedicated in 330 and was established as the capital of the Christian Empire -- an act which led to the decline of Rome.

Before he died in 337, Constantine acted in a most un-Christian manner. He secured his position as Emperor by executing his eldest son Crispus and his second wife Fausta for conspiracy, and reconciling with his half brothers (from his father's marriage to Maximian's daughter) in order to protect his young sons Constantine II (who became the North Western Emperor), Constantius II who became the Eastern Emperor) and Constans (who became the Emperor of Italy, the Balkans and Africa).

His son, Constantius II, acted in a similar un-Christian manner by massacring all adult relations of Constantine (except for his brothers) and all possible rivals. (This massacre of 337 excluded children, one of which, Julian, the son of Constantine's half brother, later became emperor).

Although co-operative in murdering rivals, the brothers did not co-operate in ruling the Empire and the first to go was Constantine II (after he invaded Constan's Italian territory in 340 and was killed).

In many ways Constantine was definitely more a ruthless opportunist than a Christian Savior, but his legacy nevertheless was a western civilization, ruled by Christianity, that might never have come about without him.

(Constantine's story first appeared in 290 Eve, 310 Eve and 330 Eve and has been edited and reprinted with permission.)

constantine's legacy

Constantine was responsible for starting the process whereby the Church assumed the functions of the state -- a system which persisted until the Reformation, and beyond in some parts of Europe -- and his rise to fame began in 293 AD when threats from all parts of the Roman Empire were so dire that the Emperor, Diocletian (with Maximian as co-emperor) appointed his father Constantius (married to Maximian's daughter) to help rule the west and Galerius (married to Diocletian's daughter) to help rule the east.

Both Constantius (Constantine's father) and Galerius were of German, not Roman ethnicity, and when Diocletian abdicated in 303 - persuading Maximian to do likewise - he gave full power to Constantius in the west and Galerius in the east. The Roman empire was now ruled by Germans!

Galerius appointed his nephew Maximinus as co-ruler, and urged Constantius to appoint Severus, a general, as his co-ruler in the west, but within a year, in 306, Constantius died, precipitating his son, Constantine, to pronounce himself Emperor of the West but, acting as senior emperor, Galerius coerced him to be Severus' co-ruler and so Severus became Emperor of the West.

Constantine acquiesced for the moment and distinguished himself by establishing his authority over Britain, Gaul and Spain and in his new capacity as co-ruler rescinded his father's edicts against the Christians and became their savior. Constantine was smart enough to know that most foot soldiers were poverty-stricken Christians, and by gaining their trust they would support him in his rise to power.

Meanwhile Maximian's son, Maxentius, followed Constantine's lead and took advantage of dissent in Rome to have himself declared as Emperor in 306. Galerius refused him recognition and ordered Severus to remove him by force, but faced with Maximian suddenly re-claiming the emperorship from his son, Maxentius, Severus was forced to abdicate and was eventually killed.

Galerius finally invaded Italy in 307, wanting the reinstatement of Severus, but was defeated and had to withdraw. Then, Maxentius argued with his father about who was the rightful emperor.

In the meantime, Constantine remained neutral as the co-ruler of the west - despite the fact that he had married Maxentius' sister and was therefore involved in the family struggle whether he liked it or not. When the army sided with Maxentius, Maximian fled to Constantine's court in the west.

Maximian -- the Western emperor -- was forced to abdicate, and his son, Maxentius, was denied any status. A new emperor for the west was appointed - Licinius, a general - and Constantine remained as his co-ruler.

Maximian still yearned for power and was forced to commit suicide after an attempt to overthrow his son-in-law Constantine in 310. In that year, too, the Carnuntum Conference was convened by the Eastern Roman Emperor Galerius to restore order among those contending to be the western emperor. This conference was attended by Diocletian.

To complicate matters, Galerius' co-ruler, Maximinus, resented the elevation of Licinius and to keep peace, Galerius made him his co-emperor.

In 311 Galerius died and Maximinus, implacably against the strange Jewish cult of Christianity, took over.

To secure his position, Constantine offered the marriage of his sister, Constantia, to Licinius, Emperor of the West.

Maximinus, Emperor of the East, promised Maxentius, living in Rome, the emperorship of the west, causing Constantine to invade Italy in 312. At the Battle of the Mulvian Bridge outside Rome Maxentius met Constantine (who used a Christian symbol on his shield) and Maxentius was defeated.

In the following year 313, while Licinius was in Rome marrying Constantine's sister, Maximinus marched across Asia Minor, taking Byzantium and crossed into Europe. The armies of the east and west met, Maximinus fled, abandoning his army, and Licinius pursued him to Tarsus in Asia Minor, besieged him and finally he committed suicide.

Licinius kept his promise to Constantine about restoring church property taken by Maximinus, and was ruthless in eradicating all members - including women and children - of the families involved in persecuting Christians (far more ruthless than the previous emperors had been against members of the new Jewish sect called Christianity).

Amazingly, after Licinius had got rid of all of Constantine's rivals, and done much of his dirty work for him, Constantine then feared Licinius in his position as new Emperor of the East - with a male heir, Constantine's own nephew - and declared war on him in 316, got as far as Byzantium but was outsmarted by Licinius and retreated.

Previously sympathetic to Christians, Licinius now saw them as treacherous and protected himself by dismissing them from his service.

By 321 the empire was split, and wanting total control Constantine amassed a huge force and invaded Licinius's territory northwest of Thessalonica, northern Greece, and in 324 the two armies did battle. Licinius fell back and was finally defeated near Chalcedon. Licinius's life was spared when his wife (Constantine's sister) and the Bishop of Nicomedia interceded.

With Licinius's abdication, Constantine became the first emperor in 40 years to rule the empire on his own and immediately became embroiled in complicated Christian theological disputes, necessitating calling a Church Council in 325, held in Nicaea, attended by 300 bishops mainly from the east. Though largely a Greek affair, its decisions were to be binding in the west as well and became known as the Nicene Creed.

As well as setting a fixed date for Easter, this council also eradicated Jewish customs from the service.

Constantine was open about his preference for Christianity - and his disgust at the old religions - but very wisely did little to force his views upon all citizens in the Roman Empire. Instead, by bestowing money, honor and prestigious positions on those who converted he cleverly induced large numbers of high-class Romans to convert to Christianity.

Constantine started the process whereby the Church assumed the functions of the state, and he also continued, with much vigor, the process whereby Germans were enrolled in the Roman army and given the highest positions of command -- an act that ultimately would lead to the end of the Roman Empire.

In Rome, he built many churches and turned over vast amounts of Imperial property to the Church, but it was the building of the new capital city - Constantinople - on the site of the old Greek city of Byzantium that distinguished his reign.

He looted pagan shrines to adorn his new city; offered tax incentives and other rewards to attract settlers; and started a new Senate for the city. It was dedicated in 330 and was established as the capital of the Christian Empire -- an act which led to the decline of Rome.

Before he died in 337, Constantine acted in a most un-Christian manner. He secured his position as Emperor by executing his eldest son Crispus and his second wife Fausta for conspiracy, and reconciling with his half brothers (from his father's marriage to Maximian's daughter) in order to protect his young sons Constantine II (who became the North Western Emperor), Constantius II who became the Eastern Emperor) and Constans (who became the Emperor of Italy, the Balkans and Africa).

His son, Constantius II, acted in a similar un-Christian manner by massacring all adult relations of Constantine (except for his brothers) and all possible rivals. (This massacre of 337 excluded children, one of which, Julian, the son of Constantine's half brother, later became emperor).

Although co-operative in murdering rivals, the brothers did not co-operate in ruling the Empire and the first to go was Constantine II (after he invaded Constan's Italian territory in 340 and was killed).

In many ways Constantine was definitely more a ruthless opportunist than a Christian Savior, but his legacy nevertheless was a western civilization, ruled by Christianity, that might never have come about without him.

(Constantine's story first appeared in 290 Eve, 310 Eve and 330 Eve and has been edited and reprinted with permission.)

germanic reformation and nationalism

In 1454, a year after the Moslem Turks captured the eastern Christian city of Constantinople, a German, Gutenberg, invented the printing press that allowed the Dutchman, Erasmus (born 1466) to spread humanism throughout northern Europe and another German, Martin Luther, (born 1483) to lead the Protestant Reformation against the diabolically corrupt and cruel Roman Catholic Church under the power of Niccolo Machiavelli (b.1469) and the 1478 Spanish inquisition.

Western civilization, as we know it today, was emerging from the Dark Ages and fittingly it was from the Germanic people that the Protestant movement arose because it was their leaders who had almost 1,000 years earlier made a pact with the Greek-Syrian Pope in Rome to suppress all Europe under Catholicism in return for kingdoms and wealth.

In 1492 Columbus discovered America, and religious issues were put on the backburner for most of the next two hundred years as the various states of Europe asserted their nationalism and battled each other for land rights in the new world -- the little nation of Protestant England, quite unexpectedly, coming out on top.

In 1683 the Siege of Vienna by Ottoman Turks reminded Europe that Christianity was not the only religion in the world, but by then the Christians of Europe were irretrievably divided by the Reformation and Nationalism, and an industrial revolution was underway which would push the Protestant north and the Catholic south of Europe even further apart.

During the 1700s, the Protestant north of Europe powered ahead economically while the Catholic south languished. Because the Northerners were predominantly white skinned, blond haired and blue-eyed and the Southerners were predominantly olive skinned, black haired and brown-eyed, the notion of White Supremacy and the Protestant Work Ethic also emerged about this time but it was not until the 20th century that it took on sinister connotations.

The vibrant British colony of America freed itself from its motherland in 1776 and the oppressed French peasants overthrew their monarchy in 1789. By the early 1900s, people power came to the fore in the new ideology of communism -- thought up by two German Jewish intellectuals, Marx and Engels -- and spread in popularity among the terribly oppressed people of Russia and China who overthrew their ruling dynasties and started an internationalist movement that became so threatening to both the Protestant and Catholic states that they finally stopped fighting each other and joined forces, expending a whole century in an effort to defeat it.

In addition to fighting each other and communism, the western Christian nations were also fighting independence movements within their colonies and territories, all of which caused a massive movement of diverse people and religions into Europe and America.

At this stage the parallels between what is happening today and what happened 2,000 years ago -- when early western civilization had yet to be conceived -- need to be made plain.

Like the early Christians flocked to Rome from impoverished Greece and Syria, looking for work, a better life and new converts, so did the Moslems from impoverished Algeria, Egypt, Turkey and Palestine flock to Europe.

Like the early Christians were led by prominent and wealthy Jews from Judea -- such as Peter, a disciple of Jesus, who became the first Bishop of Rome -- so were the Moslems led by prominent and wealthy Middle Eastern Arabs.

Like the early Christians living in Pagan Rome were branded as trouble-makers for railing against the barbaric practices of the Pagans, so were the Moslems living in Christian Europe branded as trouble-makers for railing against the barbaric practices of the Christians.

Like the early Christians in Rome had both moderate and extremist elements, the Moslems in Europe have both moderate and extremist elements.

Like all of the early Christians were tarnished as terrorists for causing the Great Fire of Rome in 64, all of the Moslems were tarnished for 9/11 in 2001.

Like the early Christians living in Pagan Rome were then persecuted, the Moslems living in Christian countries were then persecuted.

Like the early Christians in Rome hated the Pagan Romans as much as the Jews of Judea did and supported each other in their tribulations, so the Moslems in Europe hated the Christian West as much as the Arabs did and supported each other in their tribulations.

Like the Christians in Rome supported the uprising of their Judaen brothers against Roman rule in 66 (and later in 131, which started the Diaspora), so the Moslems of Europe supported the uprising of their Moslem brothers against the American invasion of Iraq in 2003,

Like the Christians in Rome multiplied their numbers and grew stronger -- accepting the Jews of the Diaspora into their flocks after 131, repelling all attempts to make them assimilate into the Roman culture and eventually converting the Emperor Constantine in 330 -- so the Moslems of Europe will eventually achieve a similar outcome by 2267 and then the wheel would have turned full circle because the Roman Empire upon which early western civilization was based was never white but ethnically Middle Eastern.