Vortigern and the Saxons

After King Alaric of the Goths captured Rome in 409, proclaiming the prefect of the city, Attalus, as emperor and himself the prefect -- in retaliation for the refusal by the deposed emperor, Honorius, to honor the gold, land and Imperial office due to him and his people for services rendered -- a Roman general stationed in Britain - Constantine - having been declared Emperor by his men - amassed a huge army, crossed the channel, gained the support of the fractured Roman troops he found there, took over Spain and negotiated with Honororius to become co-emperor, marrying Honorius's half sister, Galla Pladida, having a daughter and a son, Valentinian (who later became emperor), and died in 421.

In rushing to defend Rome, General Constantine had left Britain defenceless and when Britain turned to Rome for help against the Picts in the north with a petition entitled 'the groans of the Britons' the once-mighty empire was unable to help them.

The Britons then appealed to their countrymen in the kingdom of Armorica (Bretagne) who were ruled by Aldroen (the fourth king from Conan, to whom Maximian had given that kingdom and in doing so had drained Britain of a huge population to colonize it).

Aldroen was sympathetic, but did not want to rule Britain himself. Instead, he offered his brother Constantine of Armorica and two thousand men who arrived at Totnes in Devon, marshaled the young men they found there into a bigger army and defeated the invaders. Constantine of Armorica was then crowned king of Britain, and his three sons -- Constans, Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther Pendragon -- were to play an amazing role in the history of Britain and of western civilization, too.

Unfortunately, Constantine was killed by a treacherous Pict in his service, and on the advice of Vortigern, the ambitious consul of the Gewisseans (a province near Wales), the easily manipulated Constans was chosen as successor and soon after Vortigern contrived his assassination by the Picts and became king himself on the basis of his marriage to Severa, the daughter of King Constantine's predecessor and national hero, Magnus Maximus. The two other sons of Constantine of Armorica, Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther Pendragon, fled to Amorica, planning to return and regain their kingdom. The Picts, learning that Vortigern had tricked his Pict retainers into killing Constans and then had them killed to protect himself, resumed war on Britain

Faced with continuing Pict wars and the fear of Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther Pendragon returning with an army to depose him, Vortigern made use of the peaceful arrival in Kent of three Saxon long galleys commanded by the brothers Hengist and Horsca. It was the custom in German Saxony in times of overpopulation to cast lots requiring superfluous men to leave and find a new home for themselves.

Vortigern allowed them to stay and granted them land in return for helping him defeat the Picts. This they did, and then Hengist took advantage of Vortigern's continuing threat from Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther Pendragon to gain permission to invite more Saxons into Britain. With eighteen long galleys full of Saxon soldiers came Hengist's daughter, Rowen, whom Vortigern married to the disgust of his three sons by a former wife (Vortimer, Catigern and Pascentius).

As his new father-in-law, Hengist was able to manipulate Vortigern into bringing over his two sons Octa and Ebissa and giving them territories in Britain. With them came 300 long galleys full of Saxon soldiers, and without Vortigern's permission Hengist continued to bring over more Saxons who married the local girls and incurred the wrath of local men -- also the Christian clergy who despised the Pagan Saxons.

Vortigern loved the Saxons, so his son Vortimer took advantage of this unrest to get himself made king and that done he then expelled the Saxons, forcing them to leave their wives and children in Britain. Furious, his step-mother Rowen contrived to have Vortimer poisoned, and when Vortigern and Rowen regained their kingdom they invited Hengist and the Saxons to return. Hengist had other plans. He came with 300,000 men and when Vortigern expressed horror at this invasion he was reassured by Hengist that the Saxons did not know that Vortimer was dead, but upon hearing that news he was willing to send back to Germany all the men that Vortigern wanted him to.

At a peaceful meeting to discuss the matter, Hengist ordered his men to conceal daggers under their cloaks and at an appointed moment they massacred 460 unarmed British dignitaries who had met with them. Vortigern was captured and in return for his life ceded to the Saxons his kingdom. He then took refuge in Cambria as the Saxons laid waste to London, York, Lincoln and Winchester slaughtering everyone in their sight.

At this point in time, Aurelius Amrosius and Uther Pendragon arrived in Britain with 10, 000 men and what remained of the Britons gathered together to greet him and anoint Aurelius as their rightful king. They implored him to get rid of the Saxons, but he was intent on gaining revenge on Vortigern for the murder of his brother. He burned down the Cambrian tower with Vortigern hiding in it, and upon hearing this news Hengist fled with the Saxons to Scotland where he mustered strength to meet the new king. The Saxons were defeated, Hengist was beheaded and his son, Octa, besieged at York, surrenders and is granted clemency as well as a peace treaty with a grant of land bordering Scotland.

Meanwhile, Vortigern's youngest son Pascentius had fled to Germany where he amassed a vast army of willing recruits with promises of land and wealth and, after an unsuccessful incursion in the north gained the support of the Irish king, Gillomanius, and landed in Cambria where they were met by Uther Pendragon who, upon hearing that his brother Aurelius Ambrosius had been poisoned by a Saxon disguised as a priest, took to battle with ferocity as the new king and killed both Pascentius and Gillomanius.

The rule of Vortigern's family thus came to an end, but the Saxons he loved so much continued to plague the country.

This article first appeared as Vortigern, King of Britain

the rise of spanish and german rulers

In the year 375 Gratian was Western Roman Emperor, his younger brother Valens was Eastern Roman Emperor and a mere boy, Valentinian II, ruled over Italy, Africa and Illyricum. It was a difficult time for the Germanic Goths of the Danube -- the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths -- but particularly the Ostrogoths whose kingdom had been destroyed by the Huns, a powerful tribe from central Asia, who were pushing into eastern Europe and southern Russia.

Terrified by the Huns, the Visigoths petitioned Valens to be allowed to cross the Danube and settle in Roman territory. In return for troops, Valens agreed and a massive migration of the Visigoth nation took place by ferry across the Danube. They settled in Thrace -- modern Greece -- and immediately a revolt broke out between the Roman citizens of Thrace and the unwanted Goth immigrants (whose descendants are still visible in northern Greece today by their fair skin, blonde hair and blue eyes).

In 378 Valens asked for assistance from Gratian, who sent troops, but Valens became impatient and attacked the German Goths and was defeated and killed.

Gration appointed a a Spanish aristocratic military commander, Theodosius, to rule over Thrace, headquartered in Thessalonica; and in 379 appointed him emperor of Egypt, the East and the Balkans where the Goth troubles persisted.

Theodosius - an aggressive catholic - issued a decree in 380 advising everyone to become catholic (ie to accept the Nicene Creed) calling those who did not 'demented and crazed' warranting not only God's punishment but his, as well, and deposed the Arian bishop of Constantinople.

In 381 blood sacrifice was banned -- but other forms of Pagan worship were allowed -- and Theodosius ordered that all churches should be turned over to catholic bishops.

Like Gratian, Theodosius banned all non-catholic assemblies issuing 18 edicts against various dissenting christian sects. However, no action was taken against 'spontaneous' local acts destroying Pagan temples and in this way Paganism was virtually wiped out in territories ruled by Theodosius.

By 382, Theodosius entered into a treaty with the Goths, allowing them to settle in the Balkans as a self-governing federate, in return for providing troops for the Roman army (under Goth command).

Theodosius was easier than Gratian on the Pagans. At first, Gratian was tolerant of religious differences, but under the influence of the aristocratic Bishop of Milan, Ambrose -- Milan having long been the imperial seat of Rome -- he outlawed heretical assemblies, and abolished the privileges of the pagan priesthoods in Rome.

In 383, Magnus Maximus, a Spanish aristocratic military commander like Theodosius, proclaimed himself emperor in Britain and invaded Gaul. Gratian went to meet the usurper, but was abandoned by his troops, turned over to Maximus and executed by him.

Maximus sent envoys to Valentian II and Theodosius for recognition, but they stalled -- Theodosius to work out a treaty in 387 with Persia (splitting up Armenia) before he could deal with Maximus in the west.

Maximus was a fervent Catholic, having Orthodox Christians executed in Spain -- an action deplored by some Spanish Bishops -- but such violence was the logical result of the state becoming the defender of Catholic dogma (following Emperor Constantine's conversion to Christianity in 312).

In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, forcing Valentian II to flee to Thessalonica, and finally Theodosius came to Italy, did battle with Maximus, defeated him and had him executed.

The Roman Empire was now effectively in the hands of two Spaniards -- Theodosius and Maximus.

While in Italy, Theodosius presented his 5 year old son Honorius to the Roman Senators as a future ruler of the west (having already secured the succession of his older son, Arcadius, as ruler of the east) and fell under the influence of Ambrose, as Gratian before him had.

In 388 a bishop in the Euphrates area, against Roman law, ordered the destruction of a synagogue. Theodosius ordered the bishop to pay for its rebuilding, Ambrose was outraged, and Theodosius deferred.

In 390, Theodosius was subordinated even further by Bishop Ambrose when he was excommunicated following a military command giving the Goth troops in Thessalonica the right to take revenge on the local population for murdering their officers.

Theodosius atoned for his 'sin' for months as a miserable penitent before Bishop Ambrose allowed him the sacraments again, but the sight of an emperor debasing himself in such a manner gave a bad impression to both Christians and Pagans.

Before returning to Constantinople in 391 -- leaving Valentinian II under the care of the German general Arbogast -- Theodosius finally put a ban on pagan worship and sacrifice. By 392 Valentinian II was found hanged and Arbogast appointed Eugenius, an easily manipulated middle-ranking civilian, to replace him.

Fearing reprisal from Theodosius, Eugenius and Arbogast gained support from the Roman Pagans who were furious at Theodosius's anti-Pagan laws.

Bishop Ambrose excommunicated Eugenius -- and Theodosius now had the pretext for a holy war which he waged in 394 and won with a large contingent of Goth soldiers. He then cracked down harder on the Pagans, but died in 395, succeeded by his two young and inexperienced sons -- Arcadius, aged 13, in the east and Honorius, aged 18, in the wast -- permanently dividing the Roman empire between east and west.

Stilicho, who was married to the niece of Theodosius, maintained he was the guardian of both boys, but in effect had no control over Arcadias who was out of reach in the east. He strengthened his control over Honorius by marrying the boy to his daughter.

A major problem facing Stilicho was a revolt in 395 among the Goth soldiers with whom Theodosius had won the battle against Eugenius in 394 and remained stationed in Italy. They had suffered enormous losses to defend the Roman Empire at the expense of the federate Visigoth nation under King Alaric. Those Goth troops that had returned to the Balkans also started a revolt in Greece in 396, and finally as a peace offering King Alaric was given a position as a Roman general in 397.

In 397, King Alaric, now a Roman General, used his position to equip his Goths with weaponry and seek territory in the west. In 401 he invaded Northern Italy at a time when Stilicho was busy repelling the Vandals. Alaric put Honorius under siege in Milan, and Stilicho was able to negotiate with the Vandals to provide him with troops in order to fight Alaric.

In 402 Stilicho with the Vandals forced Alaric to lift the siege, forced the Goths back and captured Alaric's family. The Goths regrouped and came back in 403 and Stilicho negotiated with them to stay where they were.

In 405, hordes of Ostrogoths from the mid Danube region fell upon Italy and Stilicho was able to push them back by summoning Roman troops from the Rhineland and hiring Hun troops from across the Danube, but they were pushed into Gaul and he decided to abandon Gaul to the Ostrogoths in favor of taking advantage of what was happening in the eastern empire in order to gain control of the entire empire.

The Huns had invaded the eastern empire in 398 from the Caucasus; Arcadius gave the eunuch Eutropius a consulship in 399 following his successful campaign against the Huns; andin 404 John Chrysotom, the Bishop of Constantinople, had been deposed and exiled following his tactless treatment of Arcadius's wife.

When Stilicho's demands for the bishop's reinstatement were ignored, he cut off trade with the east and was preparing to fight Arcadius when events overtook him.

King Alaric of the Goths decided to invade Italy again in 408, demanding gold in compensation for the losses his nation suffered and Stilicho induced the Senate to agree.

In the meantime, Arcadius died and was succeeded by his 7 year old son Theodius II and fired with such an easy opportunity to gain control of the east, Stilicho gave King Alaric authority to restore order in Gaul and left for Constantinople - only to return when news reached him that his supporters had been murdered.

Honorius had Stilicho executed and when Alaric resumed his invasion of Italy, demanding more gold, land and an Imperial office Honorius refused, resulting in King Alaric of the Goths capturing Rome in 409, proclaiming the prefect of the city, Attalus, as emperor and himself the prefect.

Honorius held out with reinforcement from his nephew in the east, but Alaric sacked the city of Rome in rage.

Alaric died that year, his brother Athaulf became king and led the Visigoths to Gaul where a Roman general stationed in Britain - Constantine - having been declared Emperor by his men - crossed the channel, gained the support of the Roman troops he found there and engaged in attacks against the barbarians, taking over Spain.

In leaving Britain, Honorius ceded British civilians the right to defend themselves. Roman rule of Britain had finally come to an end. It had started with the invasion in the year 43 by Claudius,and had lasted for 366 years.

The Roman Empire continued in the east, but in the west it had totally disintegrated and from 409 onwards it became a loose arrangement of growing nation states under the control of the catholic church.

This article first appeared as goth migrations and invasions

the germanic deal with rome

Italy's nearest land neighbors - the Germanic tribes - had always been troublesome, but once the seat of the empire's power moved to Constantinople the Persian Empire became a bigger threat and the Empire came to rely more and more on Germanic soldiers to fight its wars until the Germans, inevitably, had so much military power that they usurped the emperorship in the west for themselves and with successive migrations of Germanic tribes into Italy - and elsewhere in Europe - the ethnic mix of Rome changed to reflect the new Germanic arrivals.

By 390, Emperor Theodosius -- a Visigoth (Germanic) Spaniard who had converted to Christianity and was heavily influenced by the Bishop of Rome, Ambrose -- attempted a new policy of SOCIAL UNIFORMITY by imposing upon everyone the observance of Christian traditions that led to the persecution of the traditional Pagans (as well as other religions).

By 410, Rome itself was "sacked" (according to the Christians) or "delivered" (according to the Pagans) by King Alaric of the Germanic Goths. The Germanic tribes - the Angles and Saxons - had by then also taken over Roman Britain, almost obliterating the native Britons in the same way that the Greeks and Phoenicians (Syrians) had obliterated the native Latini in Italy.

By 491, with the death of the Roman Emperor Zeno in the East, there was no longer an Roman emperor in the west and the Pagan Germanic tribes had total control of western Europe.

The Germanic tribes were not Christians and their own religion -- although Pagan -- differed from that of the Romans. They did not worship Roman gods. What set them aside from the Romans was their ethnicity. The Germanic tribes were predominantly white skinned, blond-haired and blue-eyed like the Vikings -- from which they probably descended -- and the Romans were predominantly olive skinned, black-haired and brown-eyed like the Syrians and Greeks, from which they definitely descended.

At this point in time, western Europe might also have unshackled itself from other foreign eastern influences such as the Abrahamic religions of Judaism and Christianity, but the complete economic and social breakdown of the old western Roman Empire caused more and more Romans -- most of whom were by now Christian converts, and of Greek and Syrian ethnicity -- to turn to religion for salvation and successive bishops of Rome harnessed these fears so successfully that the Germanic conquerors were forced into making a deal.

In return for agreeing to the conversion of all Pagan lands in the west to Christianity, the Bishops of Rome would pacify the natives and give temporal control of them to the Germanic conquerors. The deal also included mutually beneficial ways in which the spiritual and temporal rulers would enrich each other.

There is no concrete evidence of this deal, but the rise of fabulously wealthy Germanic kingdoms ruled by divine right and Papal blessing -- and the emergence of the Holy Roman Empire -- shortly after the fall of the Roman Empire in the west attests to the fact that something very fishy happened in Rome.

How else could the proudly Pagan Germanic tribal leaders have agreed to the mass conversion of their people -- first by mild means such as incorporating Pagan traditions into Christian practices, but later by brutal means -- if there was not incredible wealth to be made from it? And how else could the Greek-Syrian Church of Rome -- sacked, impoverished and left in ruins -- have agreed to barbarian kings ruling the land if there was not incredible wealth to be made from it, too?

The more people tithing to the Church, the richer the Pope became. And, the more people scared out of their wits by the fear of Abraham's God, the easier they were to control and tax and the richer the Germanic kings became.

It was a clever deal, mutually beneficial to both the Pope in Rome and the Germanic leaders, and it persisted until recent times.